Taking consciousness as primary, IIT first identifies axioms of experience (figure 3, left), then derives a set of corresponding postulates (figure 3, right) about its physical substrate [77,80]. Given any such system, the theory predicts whether that system is conscious, to what degree it is conscious, and what particular experience it is having (see Central identity).
Instead, the cerebellum is composed of small modules that process inputs and produce outputs largely independent of each other [104,105]. This is illustrated schematically in figure 5a, where a set of ‘cortical’ areas is integrated into a major complex of ‘high’ Φmax when the inter-areal connections are strong, undergoes a reduction in Φmax when connection strength is reduced by neuromodulatory changes (simulated as an increase in noise), and finally breaks down into small complexes of low Φmax. In this space, every concept is a point (star), whose size is given by its irreducibility φmax, and a conceptual structure is a ‘constellation’ of points, that is, a form. Again, considering NCC can be helpful: for example, a wave resembling the P300 wave has been reported in six to 16 months old infants, although weaker, more variable and delayed compared with adults [51]. Visual recognition of self, meta-cognition (knowing one's mind), theory of mind, empathy and long-range planning have all been demonstrated in primates, rodents and other orders [52]. The bottom row shows the results of an experiment using magnetoencephalography (MEG), in which the red grating was flashed at one frequency and the green one at another. In other words, ‘what is it like’ to be a brain island, if it feels like anything at all? According to it, consciousness corresponds to a system’s capacity to integrate information. According to IIT, however, this would not be justified, for the simple reason that the brain is real, but a simulation of a brain is virtual. But should we say the same for these digital creatures? In that case, we suspect that the computer would likely not form a large complex of high Φmax, but break down into many mini-complexes of low Φmax.
Thus, a prominent feature of the cerebral cortex, which is responsible for the content of consciousness, is that it is composed of elements that are functionally specialized and at the same time can interact rapidly and effectively. Thus, the extent to which non-mammalian species share with us the gift of subjective experience remains hard to fathom.3.
Furthermore, while in practice it is not possible to determine the quale and Φmax precisely for a realistic system, it is already possible to employ IIT for prediction, explanation and extrapolation.
Indeed, that my experience here and now exists—it is real or actual—is the only fact I am immediately and absolutely sure of, as Descartes realized four centuries ago. Yet from the extrinsic perspective of a user, feed-forward networks, like those used in deep learning, perform plenty of useful computational functions, such as finding faces or cats in images [119], labelling images, reading zip codes and detecting credit card fraud. It is also likely that consciousness is graded across the lifetime of any one organism. Dr. Tononi’s main contribution in the study of consciousness has been the development of the integrated information theory.
A simple example of two functionally equivalent systems, one with recurrent connections and non-zero Φ, and one purely feed-forward with zero Φ, is shown in figure 5b [80]. Six instances in which it becomes progressively more difficult to infer the existence of consciousness, since the behavioural repertoire and the underlying mechanisms (brains) differ substantially from that of typical persons able to speak about their experiences (figure 1). Difficulties in attributing sentience become even more apparent when considering digital computers.
Table 1.Some terms used in integrated information theory (IIT). Second, the nervous systems of these species display a vast and ill-understood complexity. This is due to the small fan-in and fan-out of digital circuitry (figure 5c), which is likely to yield maximum cause–effect power at the fast temporal scale of the computer clock.15. Dr. Tononi’s main contribution in the study of consciousness has been the development of the integrated information theory. Ideally, whether consciousness varies with integrated information, and other predictions of IIT, would first be validated here—on my own consciousness: for example, does Φmax collapse when I undergo general anaesthesia or a seizure, or when I fall into dreamless sleep, and return to high values when I dream? Since we obviously experience things in dreams whether or not we are woken up to report them, we should accept the possibility that in certain situations consciousness can be present even if it is not reported [17,18].
On the upper left are three gates with binary states (either ON or OFF: ABC = 100; see also figure 3) that are wired together as shown.
Why is it lost during generalized seizures, when neural activity is intense and synchronous? Patients with widespread cortical or thalamic damage pose a poignant challenge.
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