Arthurs, Excavating Modernity, Ch. Andrew Vincent. The Roman tradition is here a powerful force. [56] The Fascist regime considered Italians to be superior to other peoples of the Mediterranean region—including Latin, Slavic and Hellenic peoples—because only Italians had achieved racial unity and full political consciousness via the Fascist regime. In 1928, frustration arose in the regime over Zionism in which Mussolini responded to the Italian Zionist Congress by publicly declaring a question to Italy's Jews on their self-identity: "Are you a religion or are you a nation?". Lebensreformbewegung, the Jugendbewegung, and even the nudist Freikörperkultur, were keen to bolster their neo-Greek and neo-Spartan credentials, sometimes even affirming themselves publicly as ‘Deutsch-Hellenes’.86 Philhellenism might have been only one of the many models available to Germany in terms of creating a serviceable national identity, but the idea of the existence of a mythic Greco-German elective affinity or Wesensverwandtschaft ran deep, and possessed an extraordinarily broad appeal, not least because it had been extolled by so many of the towering intellectual figures of the past century-and-a-half, from Winckelmann to Schiller and Herder, and from Goethe to Wagner and Nietzsche.87. The deaths of one-tenth of the population of the Italian colony of Libya occurred during the Fascist era, including from the use of gassings, concentration camps, starvation and disease; and in Ethiopia during the Second Italo-Ethiopian War and afterwards by 1938 a quarter of a million Ethiopians had died. 1 (1981): 1–23. [45] Tunisia that had been taken by France as a protectorate in 1881 had the highest concentration of Italians in North Africa and its seizure by France had been viewed as an injury to national honour in Italy at what they perceived as a "loss" of Tunisia from Italian plans to incorporate it. [82] On 11 September 1936, Cogni sent Mussolini a copy of his newly published book Il Razzismo (1936). Il Popolo d’Italia, 21 April 1922, in Opera Omnia di Benito Mussolini, vol. Alice A. Kelikian, ‘The Church and Catholicism,’ in Liberal and Fascist Italy, ed. [154][155], At the same time, Mussolini and many of his revolutionary syndicalist adherents gravitated towards a form of revolutionary nationalism in an effort to "identify the 'communality' of man not with class, but with the nation". P57. 2). [...] Those who gained were the owners of the Latifundia, or "latifondi", and the propertied classes in general. Boca Raton, Florida, USA: Universal Publishers, 2008. From 1934 to 1938, Italy hosted the Betar Naval Academy in Civitavecchia to train Zionist cadets under Betar leader Ze'ev Jabotinsky, on the grounds that a Jewish state would be in Italy's national interest. Scorched Earth: Studies in the Archaeology of Conflict. 1 (2014): 1–19, https://doi.org/10.1163/22116257-00301001. Moreover, for campaign financing in the 1920–1921 period the National Fascist Party also courted the industrialists and (historically feudal) landowners by appealing to their fears of left-wing socialist and Bolshevik labor politics and urban and rural strikes. P115. [113], However, since World War II historians have noted that in Italy's colonies Italian Fascism displayed extreme levels of violence. [49][50] In this speech, Mussolini was referring to Italians as being the Mediterranean branch of the Aryan Race, Aryan in the meaning of people of an Indo-European language and culture. 4 (2011): 809–831; Aristotle Kallis, The Third Rome, 1922–43: The Making of the Fascist Capital (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014); Jan Nelis, ‘Constructing Fascist Identity: Benito Mussolini and the Myth of Romanità,’ Classical World 100, no. The book, translated into English in 1965 as The Three Faces of Fascism, argues that fascism arose as a form of resistance to and a reaction against modernity. Rome, 3 February 1924 and 22 August 1943. The Doctrine of Fascism (1932) described the nature of Italian Fascism's totalitarianism, stating the following: Fascism is for the only liberty which can be a serious thing, the liberty of the state and of the individual in the state. Despite Mussolini’s earlier antipathy to the very idea of Rome as Italy’s capital – he notoriously thought the city a squalid metropolis, fit only for ‘shoeshine boys and prostitutes’ – it was later claimed (not least by his mistress and biographer Margherita Sarfatti) that he had idolized ancient Rome since his boyhood.24 It is generally supposed that the ‘myth of Rome’ provided Mussolini with an establishment-friendly means of cementing Fascist power, whilst simultaneously removing propagandistic autonomy from his rebellious ras [squad leaders], who still regarded ‘porca Roma’ as an ill-fated haunt of anti-Fascist reaction, and would far rather have transferred the seat of Fascist government to Milan.25 In the words of Emilio Gentile, it was at this point that ‘the lictorial fasces became the symbol of the Fascist party’s ambition to gain a monopoly on political power and on its identification with the nation.’26 Certainly, Jan Nelis’s comprehensive analysis of Mussolini’s writings on the theme demonstrates that, following the end of the First World War, ancient Rome was to become a constantly recurring exemplar in the Duce’s thought – not least in terms of race (‘The Romans of antiquity were incredible racists’) and the pursuit of power in the Mediterranean.27. Beat Näf (Mandelbachtal: Cicero, 2001), 267–284. Kallis, ‘“Framing” Romanità,’ 828–829; also Gentile, Fascismo di Pietra, 147; Kallis, The Third Rome, 13; Chapoutot, Greeks, Romans, Germans, 73–76, 364; Moritz Föllmer, ‘Ein Leben wie im Traum’: Kultur im Dritten Reich (Munich: C.H. As Arthurs points out (page 286), this was ‘a double insult, since not only was Vespasian a lesser emperor, but vespasiano is [also] slang for “urinal”.’. [citation needed] Mussolini claimed that territory from conquered Ethiopia would make an ideal homeland for the Jews, noting that there were large numbers of Falasha already living there who identified as Jews. For an example of the more superficial type of engagement, see Peter Davies and Derek Lynch, The Routledge Companion to Fascism and the Far Right (London: Routledge, 2002), 121. Otherwise, Fascism was an extreme nationalistic ideology. George Sylvester Counts. While it is generally acknowledged that fascist movements tend to glorify the national past of the country in which they arise, sometimes, fascist regimes seek to resurrect a past even more ancient, and more glorious still – a phenomenon which has been ascribed to the search for ‘distant models’; the turn towards ancient Greece and Rome. [41][42] Italian had been widely used in Malta in the literary, scientific and legal fields and it was one of Malta's official languages until 1937 when its status was abolished by the British as a response to Italy's invasion of Ethiopia. Lazzaro, ‘Forging a Visible Fascist Nation,’ 16; Visser, ‘Fascist Doctrine,’ 7–8. See the classic account of fascism as ‘palingenetic ultranationalism’ in Griffin, The Nature of Fascism; also Roger Griffin, ‘Fixing Solutions: Fascist Temporalities as Remedies for Liquid Modernity,’ Journal of Modern European History 13, no. [18] The Fascist regime supported annexation of Yugoslavia's region of Slovenia into Italy that already held a portion of the Slovene population, whereby Slovenia would become an Italian province,[19] resulting in a quarter of Slovene ethnic territory and approximately 327,000 out of total population of 1.3[20] million Slovenes being subjected to forced Italianization. Adda Bruemmer Bozeman. Toward an Understanding of Europe: A Political Economic Précis of Continental Integration. [48] Italy's relations with Portugal were influenced by the rise to power of the authoritarian conservative nationalist regime of Salazar, which borrowed fascist methods, though Salazar upheld Portugal's traditional alliance with Britain. At the outset of the war, Mussolini sought to gain favourable support for Italy's intervention in Ethiopia and appealed to Zionists by offering them a solution to the Jewish question, in which Italy would set aside a certain amount of territory from conquered Ethiopia to be a homeland for Jews. Bernhard Rust, ‘Rede des Preuß. The Civilization of the Holocaust in Italy: Poets, Artists, Saints, Anti-Semites. [38] Claim was also raised on the basis that areas now part of Graubünden in the Mesolcina valley and Hinterrhein were held by the Milanese Trivulzio family, who ruled from the Mesocco Castle in the late 15th century. [97] He then claimed that "antisemitism is foreign to the Italian people", but warned Zionists that they should be careful not to stir up antisemitism in "the only country where it has not existed". Esau's Tears: Modern Anti-Semitism and the Rise of the Jews. Tony Pollard, Iain Banks. [135] The Fascists at this point did not denounce the House of Savoy in the entirety of its history and credited Victor Emmanuel II for his rejection of "scornfully dishonourable pacts" and denounced Victor Emmanuel III for betraying Victor Emmanuel II by entering a dishonourable pact with the Allies. Esther Sophia Sünderhauf, Griechensehnsucht und Kulturkritik: Die deutsche Rezeption von Winckelmanns Antikenideal 1840–1945 (Berlin: Akademie, 2004), 344–352; cf. Countless scholars, teachers, architects, artists, archaeologists and intellectuals of all stripes responded to the Duce’s antique vision, building a consensus ‘from below’, and lending credence, expression and propagandistic power to the cult of romanità. [75] However, the Nazis did claim that aside from biologically Nordic people that a Nordic soul could inhabit a non-Nordic body. These bankers are bound by ties of blood to those Jews who in Moscow as in Budapest are taking their revenge on the Aryan race that has condemned them to dispersion for so many centuries. Linking the Fascist Empire’s future maritime base at Ostia and the heart of the ancient city, the exhibition village also provided the perfect showcase for the grandeur that would be the new Rome. Rosemont Publish & Printing Corp., 2003. [27] The Fascist regime claimed the Ionian Islands as Italian territory on the basis that the islands had belonged to the Venetian Republic from the mid-14th until the late 18th century. Albert S. Lindemann. [74] The Nazis ascribed the great achievements of post-Roman era northern Italians to the presence of Nordic racial heritage in such people who via their Nordic heritage had Germanic ancestors, such as Nazi ideologist Alfred Rosenberg recognizing Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci as exemplary Nordic men of history. Fascism: Fascism and culture. The aim of this book is to reconstruct the violent nature of the March on Rome and to emphasise its significance in demarcating a real break in the country's history and the beginning of the Fascist dictatorship. After World War I (1914–1918), despite the Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946) being a full-partner Allied Power against the Central Powers, Italian nationalism claimed Italy was cheated in the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919), thus the Allies had impeded Italy's progress to becoming a "Great Power". Kevin Passmore, Women, Gender and Fascism in Europe, p. 16. Cambridge, England, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1986, 1999. Especially once the perquisites of empire seemed to be within his grasp, the ascension of Octavian and his transformation into Augustus Caesar seemed to provide a more fitting model for Mussolini’s own ambitions.31 For the ‘Dux’, the fall of the Roman Empire had apparently only been temporary, as pictures of him posing magisterially on horseback in Tripoli – accompanied by literal Libyan ‘lictors’ in antique costume, bearing ‘authentic’ reproduction fasces – were clearly intended to imply.32, Even Augustus’ subsequent deification seemed to find its mirror in those propaganda images of Mussolini which portrayed him as more statuesque and godlike than merely human (the dictator was known to practise what he considered to be suitably ‘Roman’ martial poses – chin jutting forward, back ramrod straight – in order to facilitate the creation of such iconography).33 Indeed, Mussolini risked becoming ever more enthralled with his own myth and apparent apotheosis, not only adapting Augustus’ own bons mots for his own ends, but also buying into the flood of hagiographic encomia which claimed that he had equalled or bettered not only Julius Caesar and Augustus, but also Tiberius, Claudius, Nero, Trajan, and all the rest.34 It was no coincidence that, after the Duce had been deposed, popular graffiti mocked both his Roman pretensions and his headlong fall from pseudo-divine grace: ‘Voleva essere Cesare, morì Vespasiano’ [‘He wanted to be Caesar, but died Vespasian’].35, Yet it was Mussolini’s Augustan attitude to the physical fabric of Rome which has left behind the most telltale traces of Fascism in present-day Italy. [139] To wit, actual idealism generally accepted that conquerors were the men of historical consequence, e.g. 1 (1998): 1–23, and Robert O. Paxton, The Anatomy of Fascism (London: Allen Lane, 2004), which characterize Italian Fascism and National Socialism as the only two fascist regimes to have endured through all ‘five stages of fascism’, from intellectual exploration to the achievement of power to eventual radicalization or entropy. [187] By 1939, Fascist Italy attained the highest rate of state–ownership of an economy in the world other than the Soviet Union,[188] where the Italian state "controlled over four-fifths of Italy's shipping and shipbuilding, three-quarters of its pig iron production and almost half that of steel". The statues of the Roman Emperors alongside the road where meant as a kind of validation of Mussolini’s dictatorial control, that Rome required an authoritarian dictator. Wiley Feinstein. Cf. 201. Indian independence movement leader Mahatma Gandhi visited Italy in 1931 and was invited by Mussolini for a personal visit, providing Gandhi full diplomatic courtesy. [35] Mussolini argued that Romansch was an Italian dialect and thus Graubünden should be incorporated into Italy. The Rome we see today is largely a product of fascism. Pining for Rome: Ottorino Respighi, Mussolini, and the doctrine of fascism. [129] In that year, the Fascist government attempted to have the Italian national flag redesigned to incorporate the fasces on it. [194] In reply, the Pope protested Mussolini's "pagan worship of the state" and the imposition of an "exclusive oath of obedience" that obligated everyone to uphold fascism. Pp. "Augustus, Mussolini, and the Parallel Imagery of Empire" by Ann Thomas Wilkins. [...] We repeat. [44] In January 1939, Italy annexed territories in Libya that it considered within Italy's Fourth Shore, with Libya's four coastal provinces of Tripoli, Misurata, Benghazi and Derna becoming an integral part of metropolitan Italy. Cf. [110] De Felice's interpretation has been challenged by H. Stuart Hughes, who has claimed that direct Nazi pressure to adopt antisemitic policy had little or no impact on Mussolini's decision. Interesting story: I became interested in Ave Maria University before I even finished my Ph.D. because of a conversation I … [90] The Council claimed that the obvious superiority of the ancient Greeks and Romans in comparison with the ancient Germanic tribes made it inconceivable that Italian culture owed a debt to ancient Aryan Germans. Albert Russell Ascoli and Krystyna von Henneberg (Oxford: Berg, 2001), 27–74; Gentile, Fascismo di Pietra, 25–27; Arthurs, ‘The Eternal Parasite.’. Roderick Watt, ‘“Wanderer, kommst du nach Sparta”: History through Propaganda into Literary Commonplace,’ The Modern Language Review 80, no. Wiley Feinstein. Giardina, Il mito di Roma, 196; Duggan, Force of Destiny, 381; Gentile, La Grande Italia, ch. The March on Rome became a victory parade: the Fascists believed their success was revolutionary and traditionalist. 133. [162] The Arditi formed a national organization in November 1918, the Associazione fra gli Arditi d'Italia, which by mid-1919 had about twenty thousand young men within it. John Breuilly (London: Longman, 1992), 1–28; also the literature listed in footnote 76 above. Nevertheless, I hope to have shown that considering these two classicizing phenomena side by side can prove illuminating from a number of perspectives. [59] However, traditional Nordicist claims of Mediterraneans being degenerate due to having a darker colour of skin than Nordics had long been rebuked in anthropology through the depigmentation theory that claimed that lighter skinned peoples had been depigmented from a darker skin, this theory has since become a widely accepted view in anthropology. Philippe Foro, ‘Romaniser la Nation et nationaliser la romanité: l’exemple de l’Italie,’ Anabases: Traditions et réceptions de l’Antiquité 1 (2005): 105–117; Duggan, Force of Destiny, 128, 130, 156. Cf. Christian Goeschel, ‘“Italia docet”? Hitler: diagnosis of a destructive prophet. Picture Imperfect: Photography and Eugenics, 1870–1940. Stanford, California, USA: Stanford University Press, P. 355. Imagined and real, rooted in the past and announcing a new, 'revolutionary' future, Fascist Rome was imagined both as the ideal city and as the sacred centre of a universal political religion. 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